2.1.3 Skipjack - Iccat

CHAPTER 2.1.3: 

SKIPJACK TUNA 

2.1.3 Description of Skipjack Tuna (SKJ) 

1. Names 

1.a Classification and taxonomy 

Name of species: Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus 1758) 

Synonyms: Euthynnus pelamis (Linnaeus 1758) 

Gymnosarda pelamis (Linnaeus 1758) 

Scomber pelamis, (Linnaeus 1758) 

ICCAT species code: SKJ 

ICCAT Names: Skipjack (English), Listao (French), Listado (Spanish) 

According to Collette & Nauen (1983), skipjack tuna is classified in the following way: 

• Phylum: Chordata 

• Subphylum: Vertebrata 

• Superclass: Gnathostomata 

• Class: Osteichthyes 

• Subclass: Actinopterygii 

• Order: Perciformes 

• Suborder: Scombroidei 

• Family: Scombridae 

• Tribe: Thunnini 

1.b Common names 

AUTHOR: 

IEO 

LAST UPDATE: 

Nov. 10, 2006 

2.1.3 SKJ 

List of vernacular names used according to the ICCAT (Anon. 1990), Fishbase (Froese & Pauly Eds. 2006) and 

the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (Carpenter Ed. 2002). Names asterisked (*) are standard national 

names supplied by the ICCAT. The list is not exhaustive, and some local names may not be included. 

Albania: Palamida 

Angola: Bonito, Gaiado, Listado 

Australia: Ocean bonito, Skipjack, Striped tuna, Stripey, Stripy, Watermelon 

Barbados: Bonita, Ocean bonito, White bonito 

Benin: Kpokú-xwinò*, Kpokou-Houinon, Kpokúhuinon 

Brazil: Barriga-listada, Bonito, Bonito de barriga listada*, Bonito rajado, Bonito-barriga-listada, Bonito-debarriga 

listada, Bonito-de-barriga listrada, Bonito-de-barriga riscada, Bonito-listado, Bonito-listrado, Bonitooceânico, 

Bonito-rajado, Gaiado 

British Indian Ocean Territory: White bonito, Banjo, Barriolet, Oceanic bonito 

Canada (British Columbia): Skipjack, Skipjack tuna 

Canada: Ocean bonito, Oceanic bonito, Skipjack*, Skipjack tuna, Striped bonito, Thonine à ventre rayé* 

Cape Verde: Bonito, Bonito-de-barriga listada, Cachorreta, Canela, Gaiado, Gaiado ou Melancia, Judea, 

Melancia 

Chile: Atún, barrilete, Cachorreta, Cachureta, Cachurreta 

China (People’s Rep.): (Jian), (Jheng wei), Jian, Liù tiáo zhú gùn 

Chinese Taipei: cai yu)jheng jian) (yan zai hu), Then chien*, Toh khun 

Colombia: Barrilete 

Comoros: Pweré 

Côte d’Ivoire: Listao 

53

ICCAT MANUAL, 1st Edition (January 2010) 

Cuba: Atún, Bonito listado, Merma 

Denmark: Bugstribet bonit, Bugstribet bonnit 

Djibouti: Machaket 

Dominican Republic: Bonito 

Ecuador: Picosa, Rayada 

Egypt: Tunna 

Fiji: I' a seu 

Fiji Islands: Skipjack tuna 

Finland: Boniitti 

France: Bonite, Bonite à ventre rayé*, Bonitou, Bounicou, Listao 

French Polynesia: Atu, Bonito 

Germany: Bauchstreifiger Bonito, Bonito, Echter Bonito*, Thunfisch 

Greece: Ρίκι, Τονοπαλαμίδα, Λακέρδα, Παλαμίδα, Lacérda, Palamída, Pelamis, Pelamys, Riki, Tonina, 

Tonopalamida 

Guinea: Makréni 

Hawaii: Aku, Aku kina'u, Skipjack tuna fish 

India: बुगुदी (Bugudi), Choora, ചൂര (Choora), Gedar, िगदार (Gedar), Bokado, Bonito, Bugudi, Kalabila-mas, 

Kali-phila-mas, Kuppa, कु पा (Kuppa), Metti, Oceanic skipjack, Skipjack tuna, Skiy jack, Striped tuna, Stripped 

tuna, Varichoora 

Indonesia: Cakalang, Kausa, Tjakalong, Tjakalong lelaki, Tjakalong merah, Tjakalong perempuan, Wandan 

Iran: Havoor-e-masghati 

Isle of Man: Bonito 

Israel: Balanida 

Italy: Culurita, Impiriali, Nzirru, Paamia, Paamitun, Palamatu, Palametto, Palamida, Palamitu, Palamitu 

imperiali, Palometta, Tonnetto, Tonina de Dalmazia, Tonnetto striato 

Japan: Club mackerel, Hongatsuo, Katsuo*, Katsuwo, Magatsuwo, Mandagatsuwo, Mandara 

Kenya: Jodari, Sehewa, Skipjack 

Kiribati (Christmas Islands): Skipjack tuna 

Kiribati: Te ati, Te atu 

Korea: Ga-da-raeng-i*, Gang-go-deung-so, Da-raeng-i 

Korea (Rep. of.): Da-raeng-i, Ga-da-raeng-i, Ga-da-ri, Gang-go-deung-so, Ka-da-raeng-i, Ka-da-raeng-o, Mogmaen-dung-i, 

So-young-chi, Yeo-da-raeng-i 

Madagascar: Bonite, Bonite à ventre rayé, Diodary, Lamatra, M'bassi 

Malaysia: Aya, Bakulan, Kayu, Tongkok, Tongkol jepun 

Maldive Islands: Godhaa, Kadumas, Skipjack tuna 

Malta: Palamit, Pelamit, Plamtu, Plamtu imperjali 

Marshall Islands: Chilu, Lojabwil 

Martinique: Bonite à ventre rayé, Bariolé 

Mauritania: Bonite à ventre rayé, Listado, Listao, Skipjack 

Mauritius Islands : Bonite à ventre rayé, Bonite acumine 

Mexico: Barrilete, Barrilete listado, Listado 

Micronesia: Garengaap-garengaap, Katsuo, Ligaasimwai, Liyaubesh, Skipjack tuna 

Monaco: Bonita, Bunita 

Morocco: L'bakoura, Listao 

Mozambique: Gaiado 

Namibia: Bauchstreifiger bonito, Bonito, Echter Bonito, Gestreifter Thunfisch, Pensstreep-tuna, Tuna 

Netherlands Antilles (Papiamento): Buni karèt, Buni porko 

Netherlands (Holland): Gestreepte tonijn 

New Caledonia: Bonite à ventre rayé, Bonite folle, Mwaali 

New Zealand (Niue): Takua, Skipjack tuna 

New Zealand (Tokelau): Atu, Nakono, Tuikaufoe 

New Zealand: Bonito, Skipjack, Skipjack tuna, Skipper, Striped bonito, Striped tunny 

Nicaragua: Listado 

Norway: Bonit, Bukstripet bonitt, Stripet pelamide 

Oman: Sadah, Shewa, Thoqaibeh 

Palau (Trust territories of the Pacific Islands): Katsuo, Tuna 

Papua N. Guinea: Skipjack tuna, Striped tuna, Tjakalang 

Peru: Barrilete 

54


Philippines: Agtun, Bangkulis, Bankulis, Bariles, Barilis, Batala-an panit, Bolis, Budlis, Budlisan, Bulis, 

Buslugan, Golyasan, Gulyaman, Gulyangan, Gulyasan, Karaw, Ocean bonito, Palawayan, Panit, Pawayan, 

Poyan, Pundahan, Puy-yan, Puyan, Rayado, Sambagon, Skipjack, Skipjack tuna, Sobad, Striped tuna, Tangi, 

Tulingan, Turingan 

Poland: Bonite, Bonito 

Portugal (Azores): Bonito*, Gaiado, Ocean bonito, Skipjack tuna 

Portugal (Madeira): Gaiado 

Portugal: Atum-bonito, Bonito, Bonito de ventre raiado, Bonito-de-barriga listada, Gaiado, Gayado, Listado, 

Sarrajao, Serra 

Reunion: Bonite calou, Bonite ventre rayé 

Romania: Palamida, Palamida lacherda, Ton dungat, Ton zebrat 

Russian Fed.: Katsuo, Malayj tunets-bonito , Okeanskij bonito, Polosatyi tunets, Polosatyj tunets*, Skipdzhek 

Samoa: Atu, Faolua, Ga'ogo 

Sao Tomé and Prín.: Atum judeu 

Senegal: Bonite à ventre rayé, Kiri-kiri 

Seychelles: Bonite folle, Ton rayé 

Sierra Leone: Skipjack tuna 

Slovenia: Èrtasti tun 

Solomon Islands: Atu, Skipjack tuna 

Somalia: Jaydar dhiiglow, Sehewa 

South Africa: Bonito, Katunkel, Lesser tunny, Ocean bonito, Oceanic bonito, Pensstreep-tuna, Skipjack*, 

Skipjack tuna, Watermelon 

Spain (Canary Islands): Bonito, Listado 

Spain: Alistado, Atún de altura, Bonita, Bonito de altura, Bonito de vientre rayado, Bonito del sur, Bonitol, 

Bonítol de ventre ratllat, Lampo, Listado*, Llampua, Palomida, Skipjack 

Sri Lanka: Balaya, Bonito, Scorai 

Sweden: Bonit 

Surinam: White bonito, Oceanic bonito 

Tahiti: 'Authopu, A'u, Atu, Auaeroa, Auhopu, Auhopu tore, Kopukopu, Pa'amea, Pa'amoa, Pirara, Poarahi, 

Tari'a'uri, Tau, Tohe'o'o, Toheveri, Tore 

Tanzania: Sehewa, Zunuba 

Tonga (Polynesia): 'Atu, Skipjack tuna 

Trinidad and Tobago: Bonito, Macrio, Skipjack 

Tuamotu (French Polynesia): Auhopo, Toheveri 

Tunisia: Bonite, Boussenna, Ghzel 

Turkey: Çizgiliorkinoz baligi, Çizgiliton baligi 

United Kingdom (Santa Helena): Bonito 

United Kingdom: Atlantic bonito, Bonito, Ocean bonito, Skipjack, Skipjack tuna, Striped bellied bonito, Striped 

bellied tunny 

United States (North Marianas): Anga-rap, Yárengaap, Kacho 

United States: Arctic bonito, Bonito, Mushmouth, Ocean bonito, Oceanic bonito, Oceanic skipjack, Skipjack, 

Skipjack tuna*, Skippy, Striped bonito, Striped tuna, Victor fish, Watermelon 

Venezuela: Barrilete, Bonito, Bonito oceánico, Listado* 

Vietnam: Skipjack tuna, Cá Ng vn 

Yemen: Af muss, Dabub, Hargheiba 

55


2. Identification 

Figure 1. Drawing of an adult skipjack tuna, courtesy of the FROM (Fondo de Regulación y Organización del 

Mercado de los productos de la pesca y cultivos marinos/Fund for Regulation and Organisation of the Market in 

fishery products and marine crops) – Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food, Spain (Anon. 1985). 

Characterístics of Katsuwonus pelamis (see Figure 1 and Figure 2) 

The maximum recorded size is 108 cm (34.5 kg weight) according to Collette & Nauen (1983), although 

maximum sizes in catches tend not to exceed 80 cm (8-10 kg). 

The maximum age cited for this species is 12 years (Froese & Pauly 2006). 

External characteristics: 

56 

Fusiform, elongated and rounded body. 

Single row of small, conical teeth. 

Without body scales except for corselet and lateral line. 

Two dorsal fins separated by a narrow interspace (no larger than the eye). 

First dorsal with 14-17 spines and second dorsal with 12-16 soft radii, followed by 7-10 finlets. The 

pectoral fin is short, with 24 or 32 radii. Anal fin composed of 13-17 soft radii, followed by 6-8 finlets 

(Richards 2006). 

Prominent keel on either side of the caudal fin base, between two smaller keels. 

Interpelvic process small and bifid. 

Colour: 

Dark purplish blue back. Lower sides and belly silvery. 

4 to 6 very conspicuous longitudinal dark bands which in live specimens may appear as continuous 

lines of dark blotches. 

Internal characteristics: 

Branchiospines on first branchial arc. 

Vertebrae: 20 precaudal and 21 caudal. 

Swim bladder absent.


Figure 2. Diagram of outstanding features of Katsuwonus pelamis (based on Collette 1995, In Froeser & Pauly 

Eds. 2006. Modified by the IEO). 

External characteristics of skipjack larvae 

• Narrow body. 

• Small, fresh specimens are diagnosed by the presence of a pattern of red marks (erythrophores) in the 

caudal region (Uyeanagi 1966). 

• Superficial melanophore (black pigmentation) in the anterior region of the brain, present in larvae > 4 

mm SL (standard length). 

• Absence of black pigmentation from isthmus to anterior part of anus. 

• Occasional black pigmentation on the dorsal edge of the caudal peduncle. Several blotches of black 

pigmentation on the ventral edge of the caudal fin (Dicenta 1975) and occasional black pigmentation on 

the dorsal edge of the caudal peduncle. 

• Melanophore on the end of the lower jaw. The end of the upper jaw points noticeably down towards the 

lower jaw (from 7.8 mm of TL). 

• Slight black pigmentation (Chow et al. 2003) on first dorsal fin, in larvae > 8 mm of SL. 

3. Biology and population studies 

3.a Habitat 

53-63 

branchiospines 

on first gill arch 

LF 

14-17 hard radii 

24-32 soft radii 4-6 dark bands 

12-16 soft radii 

13-17 

soft radii 

7-20 finlets 

6-8 

finlets 

Prominent 

keel 

Epipelagic species generally inhabiting open waters. Aggregations of this species tend to be associated with 

convergences, boundaries between cold and warm water masses, outcrops and other hydrographic discontinuities 

(Collette & Nauen 1983). 

Temperature: skipjack tuna can be found in waters with temperatures ranging from 15ºC to 30ºC, but they 

normally inhabit waters where the surface temperature is between 20ºC and 30ºC (Forsbergh 1980). They 

generally dive only to depths where the water temperature does not reach more than 8ºC below the temperature 

on the surface layer (Brill et al. 2005). 

Depth: depth distribution ranges from the surface to about 260 m during the day, remaining close to the surface 

during the night (Collette & Nauen op. cit.). 

57


Dissolved oxygen: Barkley et al. (1978), Cayré (1987) and Evans et al. (1981) established 3.0-3.5 ml l -1 (5 ppm) 

as minimum values of dissolved oxygen in water for the skipjack tuna habitat where temperature and other 

variables are not limiting factors. This factor generally restricts skipjack tuna to waters above the thermocline 

(Sharp 1978). 

Notwithstanding the values cited above, in an experiment Levenez (1982) reported recordings of skipjack tuna 

with acoustic tags in which brief dives as deep as 400 m were observed, with temperatures below 14ºC and an 

oxygen level close to 1.5 ml l -1 . 

3.b Growth 

In the course of the International Skipjack Year programme (Anon. 1986) conducted between 1979 and 1982, 

various growth models were analysed for the eastern Atlantic (Antoine et al. 1982, Bard & Antoine 1986, Chur 

et al. 1986) and differences were found in growth rates depending on the year and the zone of the survey. It was 

concluded from these analyses that fish in equatorial zones (Gulf of Guinea) grow more slowly than those in 

subtropical zones (Senegal-Cape Verde) (Cayré 1979, Cayré et al. 1986a). This seasonal and geographic 

variability of growth has been confirmed by studies of modal size progressions (Bard & Antoine op. cit., Cayré 

et al. 1986b) and analyses of tagging data (Bard & Antoine op. cit., Cayré et al. 1986b). 

For the equatorial zone (5ºN-5ºS), with a constant year-round temperature and scanty trophic resources, the 

ICCAT uses the parameters from the von Bertalanffy equation (1938) proposed by Bard & Antoine (op. cit.), 

which describe slow growth in the region of 1 cm/month for the range of sizes fished in this area. 

As regards the northern tropical zone (Cape Verde – Senegal), the equation of Cayré et al. (op. cit.), used by the 

ICCAT until 1999, was compared with other growth equations for the western and eastern Atlantic (Anon. 

1999). It was found that the fast growth rate suggested by these authors for the first year (15 cm/year on average, 

peaking in summer) exceeded the average annual growth rate proposed by all other studies (Figure 3). In 2006, 

Hallier & Gaertner presented a new study on growth in this zone based on the tagging data from Senegal and 

Mauritania. 

In the western Atlantic there are also differences depending on year and zone (Batts 1972, Carles-Martin 1975). 

In the case of the South-East Caribbean zone, where the sizes caught are larger than in the eastern Atlantic, the 

ICCAT uses the model presented by Pagavino & Gaertner (1995) based on modal progression analysis 

(MULTIFAN) of the six-year data set. Two annual recruitments have been observed. In the case of southern 

Brazilian waters, the model used is one formulated by Vilela & Castello (1991) and supported by Matsura & 

Andrade (2000), who conducted growth studies based on data from the reading of cuts on the first ray of the first 

dorsal fin. 

Table 1. Growth parameters used by the ICCAT for skipjack tuna (Lt in cm, t in years). 

Growth equations 

Lt 

*Where Lt =length at age t. 

58 

Authors 

 

0. 

322t 

e 

Bard & Antoine (1986) 

80 . 0 1 

 

0. 

218 t2. 09 

87. 

12 1 

Vilela & Castello (1991) 

L t e 

 

Lt 

Lt 

 

94. 

9 

340t 

1e 0. 

251t 

1e Pagavino & Gaertner 

(1995) 

Hallier & Gaertner (2006) 

97. 

258 

n 

341 

? ? 

? 

222 

Length range 

(FL in cm) 

40 – 65 cm 

38 – 96 cm 

40 – 65 cm 

Methodology 

Tagging 

Radii 

MULTIFAN (size 

frequency analysis) 

Tagging; 

Meta-analysis 

Stock/Zone 

Equatorial eastern 

Atlantic 

(sexes pooled) 

Western Atlantic 

(Southern Brazil) 



(Caribbean) 


Eastern Atlantic (Cape 

Verde-Senegal) 

(sexes pooled)

Figure 3. Comparison of some growth curves proposed by several authors (Anon. 1999). 

3.c Biometric relationships 


Since 1986 a single size (FL)-weight (W) relationship has been used for skipjack tuna in the Atlantic Ocean. 

This equation, defined by Cayré & Laloë (1986), is applied to males and females alike. 

Before this research, the equations used were ones formulated by Lenarz (1971) and Pianet (1974), which were 

accepted by the ICCAT until 1986. The values found by Amorim et al. (1981) in south-east Brazilian waters 

were similar to these. 

The latest works published by Brazilian scientists (Vilela & Castello 1991) with skipjack tuna from that zone 

agree with the relationship cited by Amorim et al. (op. cit.). 

Table 2. Biometric size-weight relationship currently used by the ICCAT. 

Equation 

W 7. 480 10 

FL 

* Where W=weight; FL=fork length 

3.d Maturity 

Authors 

6 3. 

253 

Cayré & Laloë (1986) 

On the basis of histological studies of skipjack tuna in the tropical Atlantic, Cayré & Farrugio (1986) concluded 

that the skipjack is an opportunistic breeder, given that it is capable of reproducing wherever water conditions 

are suitable. According to these authors, the size at first maturity is 42 cm for females and 45 cm for males in the 

eastern Atlantic, including Brazilian waters. 

According to Vilela & Castello (1993), the size at first maturity in the South-West Atlantic is 51 cm for females 

and 52 cm for males, corresponding to an age of 2 years. 

The size established at first maturity for skipjack caught in Canary Island waters and off the west coast of Africa, 

where at least 40% of individuals are mature, is around 47 cm for females and 50 cm for males (García Vela & 

Santos Guerra 1984). 

A study conducted by Hazin et al. (2001) in the equatorial zone of the Atlantic Ocean established the size at first 

maturity as 45 cm for females and 48 cm for males. 

n 

Length range (FL 

in cm) 

14 140 32 – 78 cm 

Stock 

Atlantic 

59


Table 3. Sizes at first maturity in the Atlantic. 

Maturity Reference Area 

40% mature females measuring 47 cm García Vela & Santos Guerra (1984) Eastern Atlantic 

40% mature males measuring 50 cm García Vela & Santos Guerra (1984) Eastern Atlantic 

50% mature females measuring 42 cm Cayré & Farrugio (1986) Eastern Atlantic and Brazil 

50% mature males measuring 45 cm Cayré & Farrugio (1986) Eastern Atlantic and Brazil 

50% mature females measuring 51 cm Vilela & Castello (1993) Southwestern Atlantic 

50% mature males measuring 52 cm Vilela & Castello (1993) Southwestern Atlantic 

50% mature females measuring 45 cm Hazin et al. (2001) Atlantic 

50% mature males measuring 48 cm Hazin et al. (2001) Atlantic 

3.e Proportion of sexes 

There are numerous studies on the ratio of sexes in skipjack tuna. The conclusions are similar in all cases and 

differ substantially from those for other tunas like the yellowfin or the bigeye. In this case there is a slight but 

non-significant predomination of the female for practically all size categories. Differences have not generally 

been found in the ratio of sexes in the different size categories or in different fishing areas (Castello & Habiaga 

1989, Cayré 1981, Ramos et al. 1991). 

Cayré (op. cit.) conducted an important study on the West African coast from the equator to 20ºN and reported a 

ratio of 0.953 (males/females). In other words, males and females were in almost equal proportion irrespective of 

the size considered, although there was a tendency towards abundance of males in the categories over 60 cm FL. 

García Vela & Santos Guerra (1984) analysed 1781 specimens in the region of the Canary Islands and the West 

Coast of Africa and found a ratio of 0.896 (males/females) in the size range 38-78 cm FL. 

In South-West Brazil, Jablonski et al. (1984) analysed 3429 gonads and found that the number of males was 

significantly greater than the number of females only in the months of November-December and in April (peak 

breeding periods) and only in the size categories 45-49 cm and 60-64 cm FL. 

Cayré & Farrugio (1986) analysed 16 720 specimens by zone between 1977 and 1983. They found that in island 

areas there were peculiarities such as an imbalance in favour of females in the Azores and the Canary Islands in 

some months of the year, and that excepting the size category 35-39 cm FL there were no differences in the ratio 

of males to females (0.990), with males predominating only in sizes exceeding 60 cm FL. Figure 4 shows the 

areas sampled by Cayré & Farrugio (op. cit.), and the table next to it shows the proportion of sexes found in 

these areas and the numbers of specimens analysed. Pereira (1986) confirmed this hypothesis, reporting a ratio of 

sexes of 0.697 (males/females), which was especially high in categories over 45 cm FL. 

These data are similar to those reported by Orange (1961) in the Pacific Ocean and by Stéquert (1976) in the 

Indian Ocean, except that the balance of sexes inclines towards males from 75 and 55 cm FL upwards, 

respectively. 

60

Figure 4. Areas chosen for a survey of proportions of sexes in skipjack tuna (Cayré & Farrugio 1986). 

3.f Reproduction 

Skipjack tuna breed opportunistically throughout the year over wide areas of the Atlantic. 

Spawning 


According to various authors, spawning in a school is a synchronised process. However, it is also the case that 

skipjacks at the reproductive stage are observed in all waters where the surface temperature is at least 24ºC. 

Thanks to a very rapid process of sexual maturing and consequently rapid oocyte hydration, skipjacks are able to 

reproduce as soon as they find water conditions favourable (Cayré & Farrugio 1986, Vilela & Castello 1993). 

This strategy allows for more efficient utilisation of oceanic regions that are favourable to spawning and larval 

growth (Vilela & Castello op. cit.). 

In the eastern Atlantic skipjacks spawn over a wide area on either side of the equator, from the Gulf of Guinea to 

20º-30ºW. Spawning occurs all the year round, peaking between November and March (Anon. 1999). The work 

by Cayré & Farrugio (op. cit.) shows how spawning seasons differ according to the zone. In the north of this area 

(Guinea Bissau, Senegal, Cape Verde, Mauritania, Canary Islands, Morocco, Azores) spawning is spread over 

the second and third quarters of the year, while in the southern part (Sherbro, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Ghana and 

Cape Lopez) spawning mainly takes place during the fourth and first quarters. 

In the western Atlantic there is a spawning area off Brazil, from December to March peaking in January and 

February, north of the 20ºS parallel and probably limited by the south-flowing Brazil current; the other area is 

located in the Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean. 

Eggs and larvae 

Like those of other tunas, the oocytes of this species float; they are spherical and transparent and normally 

contain a single, gold-coloured fatty globule (Brock 1954, Yabe 1954, Yoshida 1966) of variable size. Diameters 

range from 0.80-1.17 mm (Richards 2006). 

Skipjack batch fecundity is between 255,000 and 1,331.000 eggs which they have incubated for 24 hours 

(Ambrose 1996) and the number of eggs by specimen and year is from 7-76 million. 

3.g Migrations 

Zonas Nº total de ejemplares Proporción de sexos 

1 7731 0.961 

2 1115 1.375 

3 3137 1.064 

4 2743 1.100 

The movements of this species are influenced by environmental conditions (temperature, salinity, nutrients, etc.) 

and by their tendency to group around floating objects of any kind, which may attract mixed schools of this and 

other tuna species such as young yellowfin (Thunnus albacares, Bonnaterre 1788) and bigeye (Thunnus obesus, 

Lowe 1839). The average speed of migration observed in the skipjack is 2.8 miles/day (Bard et al. 1991). 

61


In the first six months following their release, skipjacks tagged in the Equatorial African zone (35-55 cm FL) 

have been seen to cover large distances, following the coastline from Cape Lopez to Cape Trois Pointes and 

carrying on as far as Liberia. Other fish have been sighted moving in the opposite direction from Cape Trois 

Pointes to Cape Lopez, and six months later a relatively large number of specimens have reached the northern 

tropical zone off Senegal, or even off the Canary Islands, returning later to Liberia and Cape Lopez (Cayré et al., 

1986b). Miyabe & Bard (1986) noted movements south-westward from the middle of the Gulf of Guinea in 

October (as far as 5ºN and 20ºW), suggesting a wide spread of this species, in mixed schools, from the Gulf of 

Guinea to various other zones in the month of February. They also found that some specimens migrated from the 

equatorial zone in April, reaching Dakar and the Canary Islands in July-August. 

Skipjacks tagged in the northern tropical area (35-60 cm FL), in the Senegal – Cape Verde Islands zone, travel 

towards the Liberia zone during the first six months following release. 

When they reach 60 cm FL, they present different patterns of seasonal migration, which appears to commence 

between the second and fourth quarter of the year. The largest are the first to abandon the fishing zones after 

approximately one year (Cayré et al. 1986b). 

In the Brazil area of the southwestern Atlantic seasonal north-south movements have been detected, with 

specimens reaching the feeding grounds in summer (Matsura & Andrade 2000); however, there is no record of 

migrations from East to South-West (Cayré et al. op. cit., Miyabe & Bard op. cit.). Rinaldo et al. (1981) further 

observed movements from the Guyana zone to waters of Martinique and the Dominican Republic. Andrade et al. 

(2005) noted a strong influence of environmental factors on the movements of this species in this part of the 

ocean. 

Figure 5 shows the skipjack tuna migrations recorded in the ICCAT data base. For the Atlantic as a whole, there 

are only two East-West transatlantic migrations on record. In the eastern Atlantic, migrations generally follow 

the coastline, both North-South and South-North, and westward in the equatorial zone. In the western Atlantic 

there is very little information from tagging, and the only migrations on record are from South to North along the 

Brazilian coast and minor movements in the Caribbean. 

62

-100 - 

-95 

Figure 5. Horizontal movements of 5,990 tagged and recaptured specimens (ICCAT Secretariat). 

3.h Diet 

-90 -90 

-85 -85 

-80 

-75 

-70 

-65 

-60 

-55 

-50 

-45 

-40 

-35 

-30 


Like other tunas, the skipjack tuna is an opportunistic predator, and hence its diet varies in time and space. 

According to Lebourges-Dhaussy et al. (2000) micronekton is the largest component of tuna’s oceanic diet, and 

according to Roger & Marchal (1994) the skipjack’s principal prey are fish, cephalopods and crustaceans. Some 

authors cite a broad trophic spectrum for skipjack tuna since this species actively seeks out its food, which is 

normally distributed in schools. 

It has been reported that skipjack tuna caught by purse seine fishers in the eastern Atlantic fed on small 

mesopelagic fish, chiefly Vinciguerria nimbaria (Jordan & Williams 1985), and cephalopods (Ménard et al. 

2000b). A study conducted in the Canary Islands zone in the month of July (Olaso et al. 1992) showed that in 

terms of biomass the predominant prey are fish (99%), the most important being young specimens of 

Macroramphosus scolopax (Linnaeus 1758), and other fish such as Trachurus spp., Rafinesque 1810, Scomber 

japonicus, Houttuyn 1782 or Sardina pilchardus (Walbaum 1792). 

In the Brazilian zone the main components of the skipjack’s diet are, in descending order of importance, 

Maurolicus muelleri (Gmelin 1789), Engraulis anchoita, Hubbs & Marini 1935 (these two fish species make up 

about 60% of volume intake) and Euphausia similis, G.O. Sars 1885. These species are abundant in the southeastern-southern 

pelagic region. Less frequent are Thysanoessa gregaria, G.O. Sars op. cit., and Loligo sp., 

Lamarck 1798 (Castello – mimeo). 

Cannibalism occurs among skipjack tuna; there is a minor incidence of depredation on their own young, and 

therefore it is considered a casual occurrence (Zavala-Camin 1983). 

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3.i Physiology 

Like all tunas, this is a highly active species. Tunas differ from all other fish in their ability to retain metabolic 

heat in the red muscle and in other areas of the body such as the brain, eyes and viscera (local endothermia), a 

high metabolic rate and frequency-modulated cardiac output. These specialised features equip tunas for sustained 

rapid swimming, minimising the thermal barrier to exploitation of their habitat while allowing them to spread 

geographically into high latitudes and to reach considerable ocean depths (Graham & Dickson 2004, Dickson & 

Graham 2004). 

Tuna, including the skipjack, possess a highly-developed circulatory system including a network of countercurrent 

blood vessels (retia mirabilia), which reduces muscle-generated heat loss and improves the efficiency of 

oxygen exchange (Graham & Dickson op. cit.). In skipjack tuna the red muscle is traversed by a long central 

retia with numerous arterioles and venules, and by a small lateral retia with a limited surface area for heat 

exchange (Sharp & Pirages 1978, Graham & Diener 1978). 

The ability of tuna to retain heat is also affected by size and stage of development. Adult tuna possess more mass 

and are able to retain more heat by thermal inertia than young specimens (Brill et al. 1999, Maury 2005). 

Skipjack tuna have a low affinity for O2; the P50 (partial oxygen pressure, Po2, required to attain 50% saturation) 

at between 20º and 30ºC is 2.8–3.1 kPa (21-23 mmHg) when balanced with 0.5% CO2, which is why they are 

found in temperate, oxygen-rich surface waters (Lowe et al. 2000). 

The swimming motion of tunas is characterised by a system of propulsion with minimal lateral undulation and 

concentration of thrust in rapid oscillation of the caudal fin. Tuna are the only teleosts to swim in this way 

(Graham & Dickson op. cit.). 

3.j Behaviour 

Like all tuna, skipjacks tend to form schools, either independently or in association with floating objects, marine 

animals or seamounts. 

The tendency to stick always with the same school is species-dependent. In the case of skipjack tuna, there is a 

high incidence of interchange among schools. More than 63% of individuals may abandon a school at any time 

and join another; the rate varies according to the zone, conditions and time of year (Bayliff 1988, Hilborn 1991). 

Free schools (those not associated with objects) of skipjack tuna tend to be monospecific (Ménard et al. 2000a), 

although there are also schools where skipjacks associate with other tuna species such as bigeye, albacore 

(Thunnus alalunga (Bonnaterre 1788)) or yellowfin (Pereira 1996). Size distribution does not seem to differ 

between free and object-associated schools (Ariz et al. 2006). 

In the eastern Atlantic skipjack tuna are frequently associated with a large variety of floating objects including 

dead whales, or with some living animals. Ariz et al. (1993, 2006) noted that the predominant species in catches 

is the skipjack, which accounts for around 70%, followed by bigeye and yellowfin accounting for about 15% 

each. Again, there is no difference in sizes between skipjack caught with objects and those fished in free schools. 

In the case of tuna, the tendency to associate with floating objects (of any kind) does not appear to serve a 

trophic purpose. Small tuna congregate beneath the object at night then spread out during the day to feed, 

normally on V. nimbaria (in the eastern Atlantic), a species not associated with objects (Ménard et al. 2000b). 

Object-associated schools may include other species such as wahoo (Acanthocybium solandri (Cuvier 1832)), 

istiophoridae, balistidae, rainbow runner (Elagatis bipinnulata (Quoy & Gaimard 1825)), coryphaenidae, 

kyphosidae, some shark species, cetaceans and turtles. These species are also found in free schools, as reported 

in the work of Delgado de Molina et al. (2005), which also suggests that more species, in terms of both weight 

and numbers, are attached to object-associated schools than to free schools. 

In the Canary Islands and Senegal a kind of fishing is practised which is known as “pesca sobre manchas”, in 

which the fishing vessel acts as a floating object. This kind of association between school and fishing vessel can 

go on for several months, during which several vessels fish the same school, even outside the normal fishing 

season (Ariz et al. 1995, Delgado de Molina et al. 1996, Hallier & Delgado de Molina 2000, Fonteneau & Diouf 

1994). 

64


According to Pereira (op. cit.), in the months from August to October, in Azores waters skipjack and bigeye tuna 

associate in mixed schools along with whale sharks (Rhincodon typus, Smith 1828). In the Caribbean, skipjacks 

associate with whale sharks and whales. This association is seasonal, depending as it does on the arrival of 

whales in Caribbean waters: (Megaptera novaeangliae (Borowski 1781), Physeter macrocephalus, Linnaeus 

1758), excepting resident populations (Balaenoptera edeni, Anderson 1789) (Gaertner & Medina-Gaertner 

1999). 

Multispecific tuna schools congregate over seamounts according to data on catches by purse seine tuna fishers in 

the eastern Atlantic (Ariz et al. 2002). The predominant species is skipjack (59%), followed by bigeye (22%) 

and lastly yellowfin (19%). The range of variation is very broad, but with due allowance for the year and the 

location of the seamounts, the specific composition of catches tends to be similar to that obtaining in catches 

associated with drifting objects. The associations observed around seamounts in the Azores may be of trophic 

origin (Pereira op. cit.). 

There is evidence to suggest that objects affect the dynamics and the structure and feeding ecology of tuna 

schools, and possibly act as a barrier to natural movements and migrations (Marsac et al. 2000). Moreover, these 

effects seem to be stronger in the case of small tuna species or the young of large tuna (Fonteneau et al. 2000); 

this augments the vulnerability and the rate of capture of young stocks and could have serious repercussions on 

the population structure and the future breeding potential of these species. 

3.k Natural mortality 

Estimation of natural mortality is extremely important for management of stocks of marine species, but it is 

difficult to quantify. 

The natural mortality (M), estimated using the empirical equation of Rikhter & Efanov (1976) and based on size 

at maturity, is 0.77/year (Vilela & Castello 1993). Fonteneau & Pallarés (1999) assumed a constant M of 0.8, the 

value adopted by the ICCAT for the Atlantic Ocean. This is comparable to the values recorded in the Pacific 

Ocean (Bayliff 1977, Kleiber et al. 1983, Forsbergh 1987) and is close to the references for local rates of 0.6 

found in the Atlantic (Bard & Antoine 1986, Fonteneau 1986). 

The IATTC assumes a value of M=1.5 on a yearly basis (Maunder 2002) in its assessments of skipjack tuna in 

the East Pacific Ocean. On the basis of tagging data, Hampton (2000) reported that natural mortality rates in the 

Pacific were much higher for skipjack tuna measuring less than 40 cm and more than 70 cm FL. 

4. Distribution and fishing 

4.a Geographical distribution 

This is a cosmopolitan species found in schools in tropical and subtropical waters of the three oceans. It is not 

found in the eastern Mediterranean or the Black Sea. Its geographical limits are 55º-60ºN and 45º-50ºS. It is most 

abundant in the region of the equator all the year round and in the tropics during the warm season. This wide 

distribution accounts for the number and variety of fisheries that have developed all around the world (Figure 6). 

Distribution in the Atlantic Ocean: in the eastern Atlantic from Ireland to South Africa, and in the western 

Atlantic from Canada to northern Argentina. 

65


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Figure 6. Skipjack tuna zones fished by several fleets between 2000 and 2004: longline (in blue, LL), purse 

seine (in black, PS) and bait boat (in red, BB) (courtesy of Alain Fonteneau 2006). 

4.b Population / Structure of stock 

Stocks can be divided into two distinct units in the East and the West of the Atlantic Ocean, separated by the 

meridian at 30ºW (a dividing line set when fisheries were coastal). However, some migrations and longline 

fishery records have shown the presence of young skipjack tuna along the equator, west of 30ºW and only 1000 

nautical miles from the Brazil fisheries, which could imply a degree of mixing (Anon. 1999). 

The two-stocks hypothesis still stands despite the fact that purse seine fisheries have expanded westwards along 

the equatorial band (Anon. 2005b), reaching as far as Brazil. This is due to factors such as the existence of a 

spawning zone to the north of the Brazilian fishery (20ºS) independent of the eastern Atlantic spawning zones, 

limited by the southward-flowing current and environmental restrictions (Anon. 1999). 

There are two fishing grounds in the western Atlantic: one off southern Brazil and the other off the coast of 

Venezuela and around Cuba. These grounds are about 3000 nautical miles apart. There is a spawning zone north 

of the 20ºS parallel, probably limited by the south-flowing Brazil current; the other spawning zone is in the Gulf 

of Mexico and the Caribbean. This could indicate the existence of two population units in the western Atlantic, 

although the hypothesis is not conclusive. 

4.c Description of fisheries: catches and effort 

Skipjack tuna are mostly caught with surface gear throughout the Atlantic, mainly by baitboat and purse seine 

vessels, although there are small numbers of incidental longline catches (Figure 7). 

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Figure 7. Geographical distribution of skipjack catches by principal gears and decades (ICCAT Secretariat). 

Eastern Atlantic 

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Purse seine fishing began in the eastern Atlantic in the early 1960s and saw rapid growth in the 1970s. Starting 

in 1975, the fishing zone gradually expanded towards the high seas, especially at the equator. From 1991, purse 

seine fleets fishing in the eastern Atlantic, EC-France, EC-Spain, Ghana and NEI (Vanuatu, Malta, Morocco, 

Belize, Guinea and San Vicente) began to alternate traditional yellowfin and skipjack fishing with catches from 

schools associated with artificial floating objects (Anon. 2005a). 

In the eastern Atlantic in the early 1970s, skipjack catches reached 48,000 t, 63% of which were from purse 

seine fisheries. In the early 1980s catches rose to 100,000 t with the same proportions for purse seiners, but in 

1985 there was a considerable drop in purse seine catches as the bulk of the French and Spanish fleet moved into 

the Indian Ocean (Anon. 1999). 

This fishery underwent major changes in 1991 with the introduction of artificial floating objects (FADs) and the 

consequent westward expansion of purse seine fishing up to 30ºW in latitudes close to the equator, following the 

drift of these objects. This has brought about an increase in the catchability of skipjack tuna and in the proportion 

of the stock that is exploited (Anon. 2005a). 

Today, the principal fisheries are purse seine, especially EC-Spain, EC-France, NEI and Ghana. Catches in the 

eastern Atlantic in 2004 totalled 134,000 t, that is, a 15.8% increase on the average for 1999-2003. In the same 

year, purse seine fisheries accounted for 64.5% of total catches in the eastern Atlantic (Anon. 2005a). 

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67


The second most important fishery at this time is baitboat fishing in Ghana, EC-Spain and EC-France. The 

principal target species of this fishery is bigeye tuna, in which the rod-and-line vessel acts as bait, locating and 

fishing a school (composed of bigeye, yellowfin and skipjack) throughout the fishing season, in waters of 

Senegal, Mauritania and the Canary Islands (Anon. 2005a). 

From the 1980s through to 2004, catches in the eastern Atlantic exhibited no particular trend, fluctuating 

between 24,000 t in 2002 and 48,000 t in 1988, with an annual average of 37,000 t for the period (Anon. 2006). 

A document on a Spanish programme of observers on board purse seiners, presented at the 2005 meeting of the 

SCRS, shows that in the period 2001-2005 the average rate of skipjack discards on FADs in the eastern Atlantic 

is estimated at 42 kg per tonne of skipjack landed (Anon. 2006). 

Figure 8 shows the size distribution of skipjack tuna, in numbers, for the eastern and western Atlantic. 

Figure 8. Size distribution of skipjack tuna for the eastern and western Atlantic (average for 1980-1998) (Anon. 

1999). 


The first fishery to be developed in the western Atlantic was baitboat fishing, in the 1950s. It is that fleet that 

has traditionally made the largest catches, and the Brazilian baitboat fishery is the most important in the West. 

This is partly due to the fact that, given its oceanographic features (inter alia, a pronounced thermocline at a 

depth of 50 m) and the presence of skipjack tuna nearly all the year round (albeit with a greater abundance in the 

summer months), the southern region of Brazil is a zone of high potential vulnerability to surface skipjack 

fishing (Anon. 1999). 

Since approximately 1991, Ghanaian purse seine and baitboat fisheries have been using a technique involving 

fish aggregation devices (FADs). Similarly, baitboat fleets in Senegal and the Canary Islands fish on banks of 

tunas in a variant of baitboat fishing in which the vessels themselves are used as FADs. The use of these 

techniques has apparently improved fishing efficiency and has helped to increase catches of bigeye tuna (Anon. 

2003, Fonteneau & Diouf 1994). 

Starting in 1979, a baitboat rod-and-line fishery was established in the southeastern region. It enjoyed rapid 

development and the number of vessels reached 92 in 1982. In subsequent years (between 1985 and 1996) the 

number of vessels fell by almost half, and catches fluctuated between 16 200 (1978) and 25 100 t (1985). 

Catches appear to have stabilised at over 20 000 t in 1996-2004, with a historical maximum of 26 500 MT in 

1997. Catches vary widely depending on the season, rising in summer and falling in winter. In 2004 baitboat 

catches off Brazil accounted for 85.6% of total skipjack tuna catches in the eastern Atlantic. The distribution in 

frequency of skipjack sizes is unimodal (Figure 8), the predominant sizes in catches being between 48 and 62 

cm (Meneses de Lima et al., 2000). 

68 

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ATE 

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Purse seine fishing, whose catches are much smaller than baitboat catches, is carried out mainly by the 

Venezuelan fleet and sporadically by Brazil. According to Gaertner & Gaertner-Medina (1988), because of 

catchability problems (depth of thermocline, current strength, oxycline, etc.), Venezuelan purse seiners often use 

the services of rod-and-line vessels (which use baitboat) to keep schools on the surface; these authors assert that 

thanks to this cooperation the number of empty hauls by purse seiners has fallen dramatically. The historical 

maximum for Venezuela was recorded in 1984, with 16,500 t; however, annual catches never exceeded 7,000 t 

from 1995 to 2004 (Anon. 2006). 

According to the ICCAT (Anon. 2006), there are no quantified data on the effective fishing effort exerted on 

skipjack tuna in the eastern Atlantic. Nonetheless, it is assumed that the growth of fishing potential with the 

introduction of on-board technological improvements and the development of fishing around floating objects has 

improved the efficiency of the various fleets. A comparison between skipjack size distributions for the eastern 

Atlantic before and after the introduction of FADs supports this assumption inasmuch as there is an observable 

increase in the proportion of small specimens in catches. 

The total catches for all Atlantic fisheries in 2004 came close to 161,000 t, which is an increase of almost 12.9% 

on the average for the 5 preceding years. Over the last 25 years, the historical maximum was 203,000 t in 1991 

and the historical minimum 111,000 t in 1980. However, it is believed that reported catches may be somewhat 

underestimated, considering the discards of small tunas, including skipjack, by purse seine fleets using objects 

and by some baitboat fleets in the equatorial zone of the eastern Atlantic (Anon. 2006). 

Catches of large skipjack tuna are larger in the western Atlantic (with a mode around 52 cm) than in the eastern 

Atlantic (where the mode is around 45 cm), and the proportion of small fish in the catch size structure is greater 

in the equatorial than in the temperate zone. 

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BARD, F. X., P. Cayré & T. Diouf. 1991. Migraciones, In Fonteneau, A. & J. Marcille (Eds.), Recursos, pesca y 

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BARD, F. X., S. Kume & L. Antoine. 1983. Données préliminaires sur la croissance, les migrations et la 

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temperature and oxygen requirements. Fish. Bull. 76(3): 653-662. 

BATTS, B. S. 1972. Age and growth of the skipjack tuna, Katsuwonus pelamis (Linnaeus), in North Carolina 

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CASTELLO, J. P. & R. Pérez Habiaga. 1989. The skipjack fishery in Southern Brazil. Collect. Vol. Sci. Pap, 

ICCAT, 30(1): 6-19. 

CAYRÉ, P. 1979. Détermination de l’âge de listaos (Katsuwonus pelamis) débarques à Dakar. Collect. Vol. Sci. 

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